Papers by Karam Tej Sarao
Rehren, T., Nikita, E. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 2nd Edition, vol. 4, pp. 344–349, London: Academic Press., 2024
Archaeological material can be located not only in space and time fairly reasonably, it also offe... more Archaeological material can be located not only in space and time fairly reasonably, it also offers an unfiltered access to Indian Buddhism. However, an overwhelming majority of modern Buddhist scholarship still sees textual material as the most important source of information on Buddhism and that the archaeological data, though useful, can only be understood fully if used as supportive of the textual data. In other words, the usefulness of archaeological sources as independent witnesses is effectively ignored, when, compared to the textual material, the archaeological and epigraphical material offers the most direct access to Buddhism and the way it was followed by its adherents across all social and economic strata of the Indian society. Thus, for the proper study of Indian Buddhism, the value of archaeological material needs to be taken into consideration. Here, an effort has been made to show that a study of Buddhism can gain significantly through archaeology.
Rāmāyaṇa, Indian Buddhism
Buddhism and Jainism, 2017
Sarao, K.T.S., “The Buddha and His Dhamma: A Critical Look at Ambedkar’s Magnum Opus as the Sacred Text of Navayāna– Buddhism of the Broken Men,” The Maha Bodhi, vol. 132, 2023: 104-115., 2023
The Maha Bodhi II ii 3 Ambedkar made use of The Lalitavistara whose English translation was widel... more The Maha Bodhi II ii 3 Ambedkar made use of The Lalitavistara whose English translation was widely available (R.L. Mitra (trans). 1881. The Lalita-Vistara: Or the Sermons of the Early Life of the Siikya-Sii\ha. Calcutta; Asiatic Society). 4 The book itself was published posthumously in 1957 and its Marathi and Hindi translations, done by experts, were published shortly thereafter. The Maha Bodhi 11 104
Lalji Shravak (ed.), The State of Buddhism, Buddhists and Buddhist Studies in India and Abroad, Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University, Department of Pāli and Buddhist Studies, 2011: 217-228., 2011
At least three important settlements from falling within the territory of modern Gujarat have bee... more At least three important settlements from falling within the territory of modern Gujarat have been mentioned in the Pāli Tipiṭaka. These were Bhārukaccha, Dvāravatī, and Sīhapura. Bhārukaccha/Bharu is mentioned as a pattana/ pattanagāma (seaport), vaṇijjā (trading centre), and puṭṭabhedanaṃ (entrepôt) in Bharu country where people went for trade. Bharu was also the name of a king who ruled from here. In some of the commentaries of the texts of Pāli Tipiṭaka, Bhārukaccha is also mentioned as a nagara (city). There was regular trade between Bhārukaccha, Suppāraka, and Suvaṇṇabhūmi and in the Jātakas we hear of merchants sailing from Bhārukaccha to Suvaṇṇabhūmi, doubtless putting in at one of the seaports of Tambapaṇṇī (Sri Lanka), for Tambapaṇṇī was another entrepôt of overseas commerce.
The famous Khmer temple, Banteay Srei, was built by Yajñavarāha, a Brāhmaṇa priest, who served du... more The famous Khmer temple, Banteay Srei, was built by Yajñavarāha, a Brāhmaṇa priest, who served during the reigns of Khmer kings Rajendravarman and Jayavarman V. According to stele inscription of Banteay Srei, work on its construction began in 967 CE and Yajñavarāha's brother, Viṣṇukumāra, is also mentioned as a co-patron. Banteay Srei was the only major temple at Angkor not built for the king. This temple lies near the hill of Phnom Dei located twenty-five km to the northeast of the main group of temples, where Yaśodharapura, the Khmer capital of that time, was located. It consists of three shrines, laid out in a row from north to south: the north shrine (dedicated to Viṣṇu), and the central and south shrines (both dedicated to Śiva). The original name of this temple was Śrī Tribhuvanamaheśvara (Great Lord of the Threefold World), an appellation of Lord Śiva. The temple's modern name, Banteay Srei-citadel of women or citadel of beauty-is most probably related to the intricate the bas-relief carvings that can be found on the walls as well as the tiny dimensions of the structures themselves (Freeman and Jacques, 1999: 206). The other explanation is that the temple has got its name from the fact that it has many devatās (female deities of fertility) carved into the walls of the structures (Jessup, 2004: 101). A typical devatā, embellishing each of the corners of the various shrines, is shown as standing with a lamp hung over her head and swans adorning the base. These devatās, with naked torsos and playing with flowers, are known for being the most voluptuous of the Angkor devatās. Due to the miniature size of the structures, uniqueness of the tiny details, and exceptional refinement of the sculptures,
The Dalai Lama: Person and the Institution The term Dalai Lama is originally an honorific title o... more The Dalai Lama: Person and the Institution The term Dalai Lama is originally an honorific title of the grand lama of the Geluk (Yellow Hat) school of Tibetan Buddhism. It is made up of the Mongolian word dalai (i.e. vast/ocean) and the Tibetan word bla ma (i.e. spiritual teacher) meaning Ocean-like Spiritual Teacher. In the Mongolian context, the word dalai appears to have been used as the equivalent of the Sanskrit word cakravartin (i.e. universal). In that sense, the term Dalai Lama should mean Universal Teacher or Worldwide Teacher. The Dalai Lamas are considered as the earthly manifestations (Tibetan: tülku) of Chenrezig (Avalokiteśvara, the Buddha of Compassion). Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso (Holy Lord, Gentle Glory, Compassionate, Defender of the Faith, Ocean of Wisdom) is the current and Fourteenth Dalai Lama. In this paper, an attempt is made to trace the origins of the institution of the Dalai Lama and the future concerns relating to this institution among the stake holders. According to The Tibetan Book of the Dead, an intermediate period, called the bardo, exists between the time of one's death and the time of next birth. Though the belief that one's past and future lives are connected existed among the Bönpas of Tibet in the pre-Buddhist period, the present tradition of formally recognizing the reincarnations of various holy persons first originated in the early fourteenth century when the disciples of Karmapa Dusum Khyenpa recognized Karmapa Pagshi as his reincarnation in accordance with the former's prediction. Explaining the concept of reincarnation, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama says that "[t]here are two ways in which someone can take rebirth after death: rebirth under the sway of karma and destructive emotions and rebirth through the power of compassion and prayer. Superior Bodhisattvas, who have attained the path of seeing, are reborn due to the power of their compassion for sentient beings and based on their prayers to benefit others. They are able to choose their place and time of birth as well as their future parents. Such a rebirth, which is solely for the benefit of others, is rebirth through the force of compassion and prayer" (Dalai 2011a). The rebirth in which a being is able to choose in advance the time, place, and parents to do compassionate work is known as reincarnation.
Thich Nhat Hahn, a Buddhist Zen master of Vietnamese origin, is a human rights activist and a ren... more Thich Nhat Hahn, a Buddhist Zen master of Vietnamese origin, is a human rights activist and a renowned organizer of retreats on the art of mindful living. Thây ('teacher'), as he is generally known to his followers, also pioneered "engaged" Buddhism during the Vietnam War when he gave a call to interlink meditation practices and social activism. Since then, he has been engaging spirituality in community-building, peace-making, and deep ecology. He has written over one hundred books which include popular titles such as Being
Elsevier Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 2nd edition, Amsterdam, 2023
Archaeological material, which is more objective than many textual sources, can be better located... more Archaeological material, which is more objective than many textual sources, can be better located in space and time and has high value as a source material. • Even for the first two centuries of Buddhism in India, for which archaeology cannot substantially add to the understanding of Indian Buddhism, it can offer an analysis of the larger material milieu in which it originated. • From the 3rd century BCE onwards, archaeology offers so much valuable information on Buddhism that there is now need to rewrite the history of Indian Buddhism, which has been largely based on textual material. • Three types of monuments, st upa (mound), caityagṛha (sanctuary), and vih ara (monastery), are commonly used to identify an archaeological site as Buddhist. However, while doing so, it needs to be remembered that specific material remains may have been the creation of more than one religious community.
Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, 2017
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this p... more The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2021
Invasion of the kingdom of Kāliṅga by King Aśoka and his consequent Dhamma policy is a recurrent ... more Invasion of the kingdom of Kāliṅga by King Aśoka and his consequent Dhamma policy is a recurrent theme in the Buddhist folk lore. In fact, the Kāliṅga event is often cited as an example in Buddhism of a cruel king (Caṇḍāsoka) becoming a righteous king (Dhammāsoka) by taking recourse to Buddhavacana. Historians have also debated on the long term consequences of the Kāliṅga War as well as the motive of Aśoka behind the war and its subsequent justificatory politics (Romila Thapar, 1997: 1ff). King Aśoka's reason for conquering the prosperous Kāliṅgaraṭṭha was that it commercially controlled the coastline for trade through the Bay of Bengal (K.Roy, 2015:15). But as Kāliṅgaraṭṭha had a powerful army 1 it was not so easy to conquer it and Aśoka's invasion led to death and destruction on a large scale. According to Aśoka's own admission made in his Thirteenth Rock Edict, when in the eighth year (c. 261 BCE) of his reign he invaded and conquered Kāliṅga, the savagery that took place led him to pledge to give up wars of conquest. 2
D.K. Chakrabarti (ed.), History of Ancient India: Ancient India’s Interrelations with the World, vol. XI, New Delhi: Vivekananda International Foundation and Aryan Books International, 2022
Contacts between Ancient India and Southeast Asia Having attained political and cultural unity at... more Contacts between Ancient India and Southeast Asia Having attained political and cultural unity at an early stage in the history of the world, India was able to assist and impress its neighbouring lands in Asia. This process is generally called Indianization. Southeast Asia is the most shining example of this process of Indianization "by which the peoples of western Southeast Asia came to think of themselves as part of Bhāratavarṣa… [and which] represents one of the most impressive instances of large-scale acculturation in the history of the world" (Wheatley 1982: 27-28). Indianization of Southeast Asia was almost entirely peaceful and did not amount to conquest. It also took place as much through the initiative and adaptation of the Southeast Asians as it was made possible by the Indians through commerce and cultural entrepreneurship. Every sphere of Southeast Asian culture and civilization has received its inspiration from India. Today a majority of the population in the countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam follows Buddhism. Hinduism is practised by a majority of the people of Bali island as well as the Cham people of Vietnam. Though officially Buddhist, many Thai, Khmer, and Myanmarese people have also adopted not only Hindu devas and asuras but also associated mythology in a form of syncretism. Even today monarchies such as the royal courts of Thailand and Cambodia proudly make use not only of Sanskrit but also have various Hindu rituals performed by the Hindu Brāhmaṇas for the kings as well as the royal families. Garuḍa, the bird-like mythological figure and vehicle mount (vāhana) of Lord Viṣṇu, has a place of honour in the coats of arms of both Indonesia and Thailand. Kaharingam, the religion of the Dayak people of Borneo, is considered in Indonesia as being an indigenized version of Hinduism. Muay Thai, the art of eight limbs, which is also known as Thai Boxing and is a combat sport in Thailand, is the Thai version of the Brāhmaṇical-Hindu Musti-yuddha style of martial art. It is known as Lethwei in Mynamar, Muay Lao in Laos, Tomoi in Malaysia, and Pradal Serey in Cambodia. The stories of the Wayang shadow puppets as well as classical dance-dramas of Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, and Malaysia have liberal borrowings from the different episodes of the Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata. Several ancient temples in Southeast Asia such as the Angkor Wat of Siem Riep in Cambodia, which was dedicated to the Hindu god Lord Viṣṇu, borrowed abundantly from the Indian Hindu temple architecture. Now the Angkor Wat has a place of pride in the flag of Cambodia. Similarly, Prambanan (Rara Jonggrang) in Central Java is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia that is dedicated to the Trimūrti-Brahmā (Creator), Viṣṇu (Preserver), and Śiva (Transformer). Indonesia's Borobudur in Central Java is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. It has been built as a giant stone maṇḍala topped with magnificent stūpas. This monument is a harmonious union of Indian notions rooted in Buddhism as well as the earlier indigenous Austronesian megalithic tradition of building a stepped-pyramid. Most remarkably, the minarets of some of the mosques in Indonesia belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, such as the Grand Mosque of Demak and Kudus Mosque, bear an uncanny resemblance to the towers of the Majapahit Hindu temples.
Contacts between Ancient India and Southeast Asia Having attained political and cultural unity at... more Contacts between Ancient India and Southeast Asia Having attained political and cultural unity at an early stage in the history of the world, India was able to assist and impress its neighbouring lands in Asia. This process is generally called Indianization. Southeast Asia is the most shining example of this process of Indianization "by which the peoples of western Southeast Asia came to think of themselves as part of Bhāratavarṣa… [and which] represents one of the most impressive instances of large-scale acculturation in the history of the world" (Wheatley 1982: 27-28). Indianization of Southeast Asia was almost entirely peaceful and did not amount to conquest. It also took place as much through the initiative and adaptation of the Southeast Asians as it was made possible by the Indians through commerce and cultural entrepreneurship. Every sphere of Southeast Asian culture and civilization has received its inspiration from India. Today a majority of the population in the countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam follows Buddhism. Hinduism is practised by a majority of the people of Bali island as well as the Cham people of Vietnam. Though officially Buddhist, many Thai, Khmer, and Myanmarese people have also adopted not only Hindu devas and asuras but also associated mythology in a form of syncretism. Even today monarchies such as the royal courts of Thailand and Cambodia proudly make use not only of Sanskrit but also have various Hindu rituals performed by the Hindu Brāhmaṇas for the kings as well as the royal families. Garuḍa, the bird-like mythological figure and vehicle mount (vāhana) of Lord Viṣṇu, has a place of honour in the coats of arms of both Indonesia and Thailand. Kaharingam, the religion of the Dayak people of Borneo, is considered in Indonesia as being an indigenized version of Hinduism. Muay Thai, the art of eight limbs, which is also known as Thai Boxing and is a combat sport in Thailand, is the Thai version of the Brāhmaṇical-Hindu Musti-yuddha style of martial art. It is known as Lethwei in Mynamar, Muay Lao in Laos, Tomoi in Malaysia, and Pradal Serey in Cambodia. The stories of the Wayang shadow puppets as well as classical dance-dramas of Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, and Malaysia have liberal borrowings from the different episodes of the Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata. Several ancient temples in Southeast Asia such as the Angkor Wat of Siem Riep in Cambodia, which was dedicated to the Hindu god Lord Viṣṇu, borrowed abundantly from the Indian Hindu temple architecture. Now the Angkor Wat has a place of pride in the flag of Cambodia. Similarly, Prambanan (Rara Jonggrang) in Central Java is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia that is dedicated to the Trimūrti-Brahmā (Creator), Viṣṇu (Preserver), and Śiva (Transformer). Indonesia's Borobudur in Central Java is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. It has been built as a giant stone maṇḍala topped with magnificent stūpas. This monument is a harmonious union of Indian notions rooted in Buddhism as well as the earlier indigenous Austronesian megalithic tradition of building a stepped-pyramid. Most remarkably, the minarets of some of the mosques in Indonesia belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, such as the Grand Mosque of Demak and Kudus Mosque, bear an uncanny resemblance to the towers of the Majapahit Hindu temples.
Buddhist thought and culture in India and …, 2003
Though the term 'decline' has been used in various contexts in Indian Buddhism1, the id... more Though the term 'decline' has been used in various contexts in Indian Buddhism1, the idea of imminent decline in the Pāli text refers to the cosmic cycle of evolution and devolution spanning vast expanses of time 2 2. Differing perceptions of decline and its causes elicit differing ...
Una estimación de cronología absoluta para una pintura rupestre del abrigo de Legteitira-6 (Agüenit, Sahara Occidental)
La datacion AMS-14C de las capas de oxalato calcico que recubren la superficie del unico y curios... more La datacion AMS-14C de las capas de oxalato calcico que recubren la superficie del unico y curioso motivo pictorico de la estacion artistica de Legteitira-6 (Aguenit, Sahara Occidental), al SE del Tiris, aporta un valor medio que situaria la ejecucion de la pintura con anterioridad al V milenio cal. B.P. De cara a una relativa precision del tramo temporal en que pudo efectuarse la singular imagen de un "cuadrupedo indeterminado", otro analisis radiometrico de una muestra de substrato rocos del abrigo, proxima a la figura, tenderia a emplazarlo en torno al VI milenio o la segunda mitad del VII. Distintas dataciones absolutas de evidencias arqueologicas y de depositos hidrograficos de la zona contribuirian, por su parte, a contextualizar entre esos margenes temporales el hecho pictorico y, de alguna manera, reforzarian el valor relativo de la estimacion cronologica sugerida.
Tārā (Buddhism)
Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, 2017
Itivuttaka
Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, 2017
Vasubandhu
Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, 2017
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Papers by Karam Tej Sarao